Romeo and Juliet Essay Topics free essay sample

MacDonnell Topics: 1. In the Prologue, Romeo and Juliet are described as star-crossed lovers and reference is made to their death-marked love. They themselves speak like this. Do you think that Shakespeare wants to create the impression that their death is brought about by a cruel overwhelming Fate, by sheer accident or by their own willfulness — or by some or all of these? 2. Friar Laurence serves many dramatic purposes in the play. Examine the Friar and his role in Romeo and Juliet 3. Name the two other people in the play who know about the love between Romeo and Juliet and explain how they help the lovers achieve their goals. 4. At the end of Romeo and Juliet the Prince says: Some shall be pardond, and some punished (5. 3. 307). Whom do you think should be pardoned and whom punished? 5. The Nurse fills the role of Juliets mother, and Friar Laurence acts as Romeos father. We will write a custom essay sample on Romeo and Juliet Essay Topics or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Discuss the importance of these characters in Romeo and Juliet. 6. Romeo and Juliet is a play about two silly, immature teenagers who lack common sense. Therefore, the play expresses the danger of a love in which two people become the whole world to one another. Do you agree? 7. A plague on both your houses! Mercutios dying curse reminds us that, in the end, it is the adults who need to be condemned and punished for their irresponsibility and senseless feuding. Romeo and Juliet are merely innocent victims of their parents rage. Discuss. 8. Write a character sketch of one of the main players in Romeo and Juliet. 9. What roles do the two characters of Mercutio and Tybalt play in Romeo and Juliet? How do their personalities add to this role? 10. Romeo and Juliets love is doomed not just by the world around it, but by its own intensity. Do you agree? Assuming that it is clear from the context of your paper which play you are quoting from, you need not identify the work by its title. At the end of the quotation from Shakespeare, place parentheses, in which you put three numbers, separated by periods. The first number is the act; the second is the scene, and the third the line numbers quoted, the first one and the last one, separated by dash. The parentheses locating the quotation come after the quotation mark and before the punctuation of your own sentence. Here are three examples: 1) So shaken as we are, so wan with care, Henry announces to his court (1. 1. 1). 2) Henry appears infirm from the very beginning of the play: So shaken as we are, so wan with care (1. 1. 1). 3) Henry thinks of the terrain of England as a thirsty mother perversely feeding on the blood of her sons: No more the thirsty entrance of this soil / Shall daub her lips with her own childrens blood (1. 1. 5-6). Note the use of the slash (/)preceded and followed by a spaceto separate lines of poetry in example #3. This is standard practice when you are quoting blank verse from Shakespeare into your own text. Sometimesthough not often in short essaysyou will want to quote a larger block of verse, four verse lines or more, which you then should discuss in close, careful detail. Usually this sort of quotation will be introduced by a full colon (:) and then indented ten spaces from your left-hand margin. You will no longer need slashes to separate lines nor quotation marks; instead, the quotation should appear as it does on the printed page. 4) Henrys first speech is full of metaphors of physical distress: So shaken as we are, so wan with care, Find we a time for frighted peace to pant And breathe short-winded accents of new broils To be commenced in stronds far remote. (1. 1. 1-4) In this instance, the parentheses locating the quotation follow the final punctuation mark. Note that all citations in parentheses are in Arabic rather than Roman numerals. * Dont leave a quote or paraphrase by itself-you must introduce it, explain it, and show how it relates to your thesis. * Block format all quotations of more than four lines. * When you quote brief passages of poetry, line and stanza divisions are shown as a slash (Ex. Roses are red, / Violets are blue / You love me / And I like you).

Metathesis

Metathesis Metathesis Metathesis By Maeve Maddox One of the changes that takes place in the pronunciation of words is the linguistic phenomenon called metathesis: metathesis: The transposition of sounds or letters in a word, or (occasionally) of whole words or syllables; the result of such a transposition. The most commonly cited example of metathesis in an English word is the pronunciation of [aks] for [ask]. The Old English verb acsian is usually mentioned to show that [ask] was a later development. In fact, like modern English, Old English had more than one dialect. Two versions of the verb for â€Å"to ask†acsian and ascianwere in use at the same time in different dialects. Northern ascian happened to be the one that prevailed in the dialect we call â€Å"modern standard English.† Numerous English words acquired their present forms by way of metathesis. We still say three and thrice, but the OE ordinal form thrid morphed into third. Our word foliage was altered by metathesis from an early form that put the â€Å"i† before the â€Å"l†: foillage. The word changed back and forth more than once, coming as it did from the Latin word for â€Å"leaf,† folium. From the same source, Old French foille, â€Å"leaf,† became modern French feuille. The standard pronunciation of foliage is [FOH-lee-ij], although many speakers alter it by dropping one of the syllables, pronouncing it [FOH-lij]. (The word for omitting a syllable is syncope [SIN-cuh-pee].) Burn is another word in the modern vocabulary that has had a see-saw relationship with metathesis. Old English had the verbs brinnan, â€Å"to burn,† baernan, â€Å"to expose to the action of heat,† and beornan, â€Å"to be on fire.† The verbs eventually merged. The forms brune, brenne, and brent occur in Middle English. The Wycliffe Bible (1382) has â€Å"Fyr brennende all dai.† (Fire burned all day.) Isa. lxv. 5.  Ã‚   The King James Bible (1611) has â€Å"Let not thine anger burne against thy seruant.† (Let not your anger burn against your servant.) Gen. xliv. 18.  Ã‚  By the 16th century, the prevailing forms were burn and burnt. Only time will tell if common mispronunciations resulting from metathesis will find their way into standard English. Here are five words frequently mispronounced by changing the order of their sounds: asterisk (*): mispronounced as â€Å"as-ter-iks† cavalry (mounted soldiers): mispronounced as â€Å"calvary† (site of the crucifixion) introduce: mispronounced as â€Å"in-ter-duce† relevant: mispronounced as â€Å"rev-e-lent† prescription: mispronounced as â€Å"per-scrip-tion† I’m sure that my readers can think of many more examples of contemporary pronunciation errors that result from metathesis. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Spelling category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Fly, Flew, (has) FlownFlied?Probable vs. Possible150 Foreign Expressions to Inspire You

Ectopic Pregnancy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Ectopic Pregnancy - Essay Example Ectopic pregnancy occurs in various places such as cervix, ovaries, peritoneal cavity, or interstitial tissue but more than 96% of all ectopic cases occur in the fallopian tubes (McCulloch 2007 and Togas 2006). This tube is in-charged of carrying fertilized ovum from the ovary down to the uterus ('Ectopic Pregnancy'). However, when the fertilized ovum implants and grows inside the fallopian tube, this will weaken the wall and eventually rupture the tube (McCulloch 2007). A ruptured ectopic pregnancy is a true medical emergency. It is the leading cause for 10 to 15 percent of all maternal deaths (Tenore 2000). In 2001, the Confidential Enquiry into Maternal Deaths (CEMD) 2001 reported that there are 5 women who die every single year from ectopic pregnancy. The report also revealed that one of the main reasons of maternal death was due to substandard care and the failure to detect early ectopic pregnancy. Indeed, it is important to be aware of the predisposing risk factors as well as investigate early signs and symptoms of ectopic pregnancy to prevent further mortality rates ('The Ectopic Pregnancy Trust'). There are a lot of predisposing risk factors associated with ectopic pregnancy and this include current or previous pelvic infection, primary infertility, history of ectopic pregnancy, prior tubal surgery, endometriosis, a history of abdominal or pelvic surgery, acute appendicitis, in-utero exposure to DES, vaginal douching, smoking, progestin pills, and use of an intrauterine device (IUD) (Tenore 2000 and Tay et al. 2000). In addition, assisted reproductive technology may compromise tubal structure and function which increases the risk of ectopic pregnancy. These include ovulatory induction medications, and in-vitro fertilization, or gamete intrafallopian transfer (McCulloch 2007). Here is a case study describing the experience of having an ectopic pregnancy. A 33year old female had been trying to conceive for four years, became pregnant with the help of fertility treatment (do not have details). At five weeks into her pregnancy she began to have one-sided pain and slight spotting. She was seen by her own consultant, follow-up tests were given, pregnancy test which was positive, a beta-Hcg test and a scan which showed her uterus to be empty. Later the same afternoon this lady was taken to the operating theatre and anaesthetised with cricoid pressure because she had eaten. A laparoscopy was carried out which show that she had ruptured tube. She lost her baby and one of fallopian tubes, which reduced her conceiving again by approximately 50% because she only has one fallopian tube now. This lady life was saved, but she was in grief for her lost child. She stays in the care of the hospital for two days, before going home under the care of the consultant. Her care has not been carried out by the NHS. This was her wishes. According to biopsychoscocial model, the patient's perception of ectopic pregnancy arises from a combination of her biological, emotional state, and concomitant social determinants. This model explains the phenomenon of signs and symptoms associated with ectopic pregnancy shifting to the patient's underlying psychological or social concerns (Geri et al. 2000 and Lakhan 2006). In the case study above, the patient was described to receive fertility treatme

Criminal investagation questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Criminal investagation questions - Essay Example This would have other far-reaching consequences such as undermining the deterrence objective of legal punishment. Linking the suspect with the cigarette butt would for example dilute evidence, leading to acquaintance, and therefore promoting the criminal’s future involvement in crime. I would therefore disclose ownership and explain that the cigarette smoking occurred unconsciously (Berg 33). Upon arrival at a crime scene and I am not sure if the suspect has fled, I would inform the people of my position as a security officer and ask them to obey orders. I would then ask the people to put their hands where I can see them and then frisk the people to ensure that none of them is armed. I would then record their statements. I would not assume that the suspect has fled and would not consider the people as victims until I review all of their statements. In order to protect my partner, the victims, and myself, I would frisk the five people to ensure that none is armed. This is because a victim, if present and armed, may take advantage of any of the other parties to aid

Gorbachev and the Fall of Soviet Communism Essay Example for Free

Gorbachev and the Fall of Soviet Communism Essay From the failure of Khrushchev’s Virgin Lands program, to Brezhnev’s economic stagnation, to the final dissolution of the Soviet system, the organisation of central planning went though a slow death agony. When the former Minister of Agriculture, Mikhail Gorbachev, took over in 1985, the system seemed to have a certain spark left in it, though this was to prove to be illusory. Gorbachev announced that the Soviet state will not bail out failing enterprises, some limited market reform will be instituted and that limited press freedoms will be countenanced. Gorbachev did not satisfy anyone, including US policymakers. Liberals such as Boris Yeltsin thought reforms needed to go farther, while hardliners like Boris Pugo thought Gorbachev was selling out the Great Experiment. While Gorbachev cannot be held responsible for the dissolution of the USSR, he did unleash forces that eventually led to its demise. First, admitting defeat in Afghanistan, he shook the confidence in Soviet military might, unleashing a storm of protest from the â€Å"mothers movement,† embarrassing the USSR worldwide. Second, by letting up on police pressure, the huge black marketeers came to the surface, with money and local influence. Third, after Chernobyl, Ukrainian nationalism found new life in the RUKH movement, supported by a strong and large Ukrainian diaspora in America and Canada. Fourth, with the USSR clearly weakening, Islamic powers began to proselytize in the southern part of the USSR, such as in Azerbaijan and throughout the Caucuses. Fifth, the Baltics, sensing a weakening USSR, began to agitate for independence with substantial western–notably Swedish–help. Sixth, by retaining a hard line with Ronald Regan at the Iceland conference, the US began construction of a missile shield that forced the USSR to eventually backpedal on previous bellicose statements. Seventh, Gorbachev made it clear, just as he was not going to bail out failing enterprises, he also was not going to bail out failed regimes in Europe, starting with Ernst Honecker’s East Germany . Eighth, by proclaiming some sort of limited market, foreign goods rushed into the country, and new local elites began to form. Ninth, the reign of glasnost’, or openness, permitted activists more and more access to Soviet files, proving corruption and mismanagement. The fall of the USSR, based on the above events (and much more), had substantial implications for European politics. Firstly, the Swedes sought, successfully, to make economic colonies out of the Baltic states, especially Estonia. Their independence meant cheap and educated labor, and a new market for Swedish goods. Secondly, Germany was to be unified peacefully and without substantial protest. Again, this meant for Germany another economic colony of both cheap and educated labor, with a strong technical labor force. German investment eastward irritated France, seeing Germany ideally placed to take advantage of new Slavic investments in Poland, Russia and the newly formed Czech Republic (Czechia in Europe). France, as a result, sought to enlarge both NATO and the European Community (at the time) by bringing in new eastern states, including Turkey so as to counterbalance German expansion. The American response was typical. George Bush waffled on major issues, providing statements both for and against the independence of the Baltics and Ukraine. War flared up between newly independent Armena and Azerbaijan, as Islamic fundamentalists and drugs from Central Asia flooded the Caucuses on their way to markets in Europe and America,. Yugoslavia, a short time, later broke up along the same lines as the USSR under the incompetent leadership of Slobodan Milosevic, whose inability to control inflation led to the final destruction of that experimental state. US policymakers realized that they needed to move fast, while the USSR was prostrate, to begin monopolizing oil and gas resources throughout the country. The CIA began to step up its efforts in the Caucuses, making sure pro-American government were installed and properly trained. George Soros was a strong supporter of this move, and became a major political player in the region. In the mind of the US elites of both major parties, the fall of the USSR meant a green light for unlimited intervention in the affairs of former Soviet clients such as Iraq and Syria, and the Soviet backed regimes of Angola and Ethiopia were themselves were soon to fall to pro-US forces. Because of this, the latter nation fell apart into, like Yugoslavia, its original component parts. The New Left in the US, France and England scrambled to find another raison d’etre, and found it in diversity and multiculturalism. Great fear developed in the west when it became clear that Soviet (nuclear) scientists were not being paid, and were leasing out their considerable abilities to regimes opposed to US global rule such as Iran and Algeria. While all of this was happening, the US, and Harvard University, working with the World Bank, began implementing â€Å"shock therapy† to the liberated nations of eastern Europe. The rapid privatization in nearly all former Soviet satellites (except Belarus, who has maintained a high standard of living precisely by ignoring such moves ), led to mass impoverishment, rigged auctions, the rise of a nearly all-powerful mafia (with strong ties to Israel, and hence, to the US), who then assisted in the development of Russian â€Å"political parties. † Billions of dollars left the former USSR and its satellites, finding its was to Swiss banks and elsewhere, as wealthy organized crimes figures such as Symon Mogilevic began buying heavily into western economic life. There seems to be two distinct forms of former satellites. Those with direct and motivated patrons had an easy time of adjustment, as they became a part of western economic life quickly. The Baltics (Sweden), Slovenia (Germany, from Yugoslavia) and, clearly, East Germany, fall into this category. With a stable and wealthy patron, substantial investment and currency support came quickly and easily by comparison with the remainder, such as Ukraine, Uzbekistan or Armenia, that struggled with poverty and disinvestment. Bulgaria fell under Mafia rule, while labor unrest struck Romania. The influence of the fall of the USSR on Europe is incalculable. All the old rules of the game changed. What had once unified Europe now divided it, and old rivalries began to develop. While Russia has begin to function again on the global stage, the world will never quite recover from the end oft he cold war. Bibliography: â€Å"Man in the News: Skillful Party Climber Boris Pugo. † New York Times. August 8, 1991. â€Å"Erich Honecker, ruler of East Germany for 18 of its Last Years, Dies at 81. † New York Times. May 30, 1994. Bohdan Nahaylo. The Ukrainian Resurgence. University of Toronto Press, 1999 â€Å"Moscow Looks with Concern at NATO, Eu Enlargement. † Voice of America News. February, 17 2004. Matthew Raphael Johnson â€Å"A Look at the Judeo-Russian Mafia: From the GULAG to Brooklyn. † The Barnes Review. (May, 2006. ) Ariel Cohen. â€Å"Schevardnadze’s Journey. † Policy Review. No. 124. (April/May 2004). Stewart Parker. The Last Soviet Republic: Alexander Lukashenko’s Belarus. Trafford Publishing, 2007 US Department of State. â€Å"Romania. † Country Reports on Human rights Practices,Washington D. C. 2/25/2004

Same-Sex Marriage Essay -- Homosexual Gay Lesbian Papers

Same-Sex Marriage Many people believe that marriage is an integral part of their lives. Currently, marriage is defined within the parameters of a partnership of one man and one woman. Under Canadian common law, a same-sex couple cannot get married and the government refuses to acknowledge homosexuals as equals. Prohibiting same-sex marriages in legislation is discrimination. Denying homosexuals the ability to form this bond violates freedom of expression, equality rights for minorities, and freedom of religion, provisions present in the Charter of Rights and Freedoms. This is an issue of equality, security and freedom. If gays are denied the basic human right of marriage, one must ask the question: where does society stand today? This issue is controversial because many fear that marriage as an institution will be destroyed if same-sex marriage is passed through legislation. Really, there is no compelling reason to believe that legalizing gay marriage would affect traditional marriage, that is, if a traditional marriage even exists. Public opinion is considerably more tolerant of homosexuality than it has been in the past, but lesbian and gay communities nevertheless suffer from discrimination due to their sexual orientation. While it is "discriminatory and unethical to say that you have to be straight to have rights and to be accepted as a human being" (Steirs 164), many people oppose gay marriage because they assume that gays have a choice in who they can feel attracted to, and the reality is quite different. Through rapid advances in genetic research and biotechnology, many scientists have confirmed that sexual orientation is in... ...n Network Ltd. 1993. Moore, Leah. Points in Defense of Gay Marriage. 21 April 2001. (3 November 2002). Rauch, Jonathan. "Anything but Marriage?" The Atlantic Monthly May 2002. Robinson, B.A. Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance. 9 November, 2002. (10 November 2002). Stiers, Gretchen A. From This Day Forward. Commitment, Marriage, and Family in Lesbian and Gay Relationships. St. Martins Press: New York. 1999. Tessina, Tina. Gay Relationships for Men and Women, Los Angeles: Jeremy P. Tarcher, Inc,1989. Vanasco, Jennifer. "Families United in Law". Chicago Free Press 13 February 2002. Vincent, Norah. "A lot of Hooey on Same-Sex Marriage; Gays Didn't Wreck Marriage". Los Angeles Times 9 August 2001.

Summary and Analysis of two EEOC laws

The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) is The United States Government enforcement mechanism for Federal legislation regarding discrimination in the workplace. Two recent Acts of Congress under the management of the EEOC have particularly wide-ranging effects and potential effects for the American people. The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 is considered a landmark Act and a platform for future legislation of its type. The Genetic Nondiscrimination Act 2008 is part of a continuing line of anti-discrimination legislation.Its full impact probably will not be seen for decades to come but its potential impact in closing a new avenue for discrimination is great. As Federal Acts these laws instantly have more impact than any pre-existing state laws. They set nationwide standards for businesses, labor unions and employment agencies. A business cannot relocate itself in a state where anti-discrimination laws are less strict or where enforcement is lax. Individuals can exp ect the same rights and protections nationwide, except in cases where certain industries have been granted exceptions for safety or national security reasons.Traditionally, the Federal government has been hesitant to regulate private business. In the case of discrimination it has made exceptions when it became clear that discrimination was either unconstitutional, hurting national productivity, or both. The Civil Rights Movement was a catalyst for much of the anti-discrimination legislation we regard as commonplace today. Background The social upheaval of the 1960s triggered substantial changes in American law. Those changes were mirrored in actions of the United States Congress and Judiciary.An increasing emphasis on the securing of individual rights for all Americans led to a series of new laws crafted especially to protect historically discriminated against minorities. Laws designed to even economic and societal playing fields for African-Americans and women were enacted in the 1 960s and 70s. In the 1980s and 90s new laws focused on the rights of the disabled. About the same time individual privacy concerns came to the forefront. In this scientific and technological age, personal information is more readily available than ever. Genetic information could be spread widely in the blink of an eye.This information could then be used in discriminatory ways. Researchers worry that a new spectrum of discrimination has been opened up based on a person's genetic potential to become ill. A perceived genetic black mark could effectively label a person in much the same way as minorities, women and the disabled have been labeled in the past. Three laws: The Civil Rights Act of 1964, The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) and the Genetic Nondiscrimination Act of 2008 (GINA) are part of a continuum of nondiscrimination laws designed to mitigate the effects of such labeling or prevent it all together.The latter two laws were essentially a product of the first. Th ose two laws will be analyzed here. The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) This Act came about from a growing cultural realization that people with physical disabilities have every right to full participation in American society. In many cases their contributions are equal or greater than able-bodied citizens. Instead of being seen as an embarrassment or a drag on society, they should be seen as valuable assets that should be cultivated rather than wasted.Historically speaking, the disabled were not accommodated in this purpose. Instead they were excluded from employment and many of the other functions of the American society. This exclusion was often based on erroneous assumptions about the capabilities of disabled people, the reticence of others to accept them, etc. Framed in the legal context, the question was whether American society and government were systematically violating the constitutional rights of the disabled by not guaranteeing an equal playing field.Disabl ed individuals already have much to overcome. Allowing discrimination to make their lives all the more difficult was morally wrong and, eventually, unconstitutional as well. The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 piggybacked upon the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and several other laws. It attempted to codify, in clear terms, the rights of the individual disabled citizen as well as the rights and responsibilities of various agencies, governmental organizations and private businesses dealing with the physically disabled. Purposes (ADA)The Congress of The United States has determined that â€Å"Census data, national polls, and other studies have documented that people with disabilities, as a group, occupy an inferior status in our society and are severely disadvantaged socially, vocationally and educationally† (United States Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 1990). Given those realities the potential impact of anti-discriminatory legislation is enormous. In some cases pr eventing discrimination is as simple as removing physical barriers. In other cases it requires a long-term attitude readjustment in opinions about the disabled and what they can or cannot do.Discrimination has also occurred because businesses have irrational fears about what it will cost them to have employees with disabilities. This Act is designed to clarify what businesses can and cannot do in regard to the disabled. In a clarified landscape businesses can effectively keep costs down. The subtitle of the act describes its purpose this way: â€Å"To establish a clear and comprehensive prohibition of discrimination on the basis of disability† (United States Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 1990).In its statement of Findings and Purposes the Congress concluded that disabled people have suffered unjust discrimination and needless denial of opportunity. This discrimination has effectively relegated the disabled to â€Å"second class citizen† status in the United States. Modern medicine and recognition of the accomplishments of disabled Americans has led to a shift in perspective. In the past, qualified students were excluded from education by outdated attitudes or because of something as simple as physical barriers. The same was true in employment.When disabled Americans were not plugged into these two critical facets of life, they would often end up excluded from society as a whole. In addition to being the â€Å"right thing to do†; this act is the result of a simple cost-benefit analysis. The cost of making attitude adjustments and simple accommodations pales in comparison to the potential societal benefits of having disabled people fully participating in society (Pickering, 2000). In addition to justifying the act based on evidence of past discrimination, the Congress also notes the financial toll of discrimination on the basis of disability.Individuals suffer the costs of not having an equal chance to make a living. Society then suffers as well because many become dependent on government and other aid when equal opportunity might have made this unnecessary. Thirdly, the nation loses the productivity that many disabled people are capable of. Provisions (ADA) This act regulates what companies may and may not consider in the hiring, firing and promotion of employees with disabilities. Disabled employees cannot be classified as such if it, in any way, unfairly hinders their chances of success at the corporation.The fact that the employee has a physical disability cannot be the deciding factor in whether or not an employee is hired or promoted, except under a very narrow set of criteria. Disabled employees are entitled to equal opportunity and equal pay for equal work. Reasonable accommodations must be made for the disabled employee wherever necessary. â€Å"Reasonable† is a term that is subject to ongoing interpretation. In some cases it can mean something simple as adding a wheelchair ramp or widening a bathroom door.In other cases it can mean an alteration in the job itself. Employers have some leeway in this area. Courts have ruled that when accommodations would cause a â€Å"disparate† hardship on the company it may be granted a waiver from the â€Å"reasonable accommodations† standard. During the application phase, the employer may not ask about disabilities except in the context of the applicant's ability to perform job-related tasks. If there is a pre-employment testing process the employer must make reasonable accommodations for each applicant to take the test.Medical tests can be done on a voluntary basis. The results can only be used for hiring/firing decisions when a clear inability to do the job is apparent. The employee also may not be coerced or retaliated against when requesting accommodations mandated under this act. This prohibition also applies to any employee or other individual who may have helped a disabled person exercise their rights. Notices of this act must be posted by emplo9yers agencies and labor unions in an easily accessible place for employees to read.Enforcement of the Act is handled by the Office of the Attorney General of the United States and The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC). Sub agencies like The Occupational Safety and Health Administration and others may become involved if a particular case warrants. The Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008 (GINA) By the turn of the twenty-first century a great deal of legislation aimed at securing the rights of minorities, women and the disabled had been enacted and had passed constitutional scrutiny. Meanwhile, a new technological age was emerging.The world was rapidly becoming more interconnected. The science of genetics was also experiencing explosive progress. A new and nearly infallible method of identifying specific people animals and plants was discovered and refined. Genetic testing of individuals has been around for a while. In recent years this testing has become more refined, more widely available and less expensive. This type of testing can identify genes or gene disorders that are associated with a wide array of health conditions. This does not mean that the person will get the condition; it only means that the potential is there.In 2008 Congress acted upon public worries that genetic testing and information could be used for discriminatory purposes. Employers might try to use genetic information for hiring, firing and promotion purposes. Insurers might also use that information for denial of coverage, rate changes or other purposes. In contrast with the ADA (1990), the Genetic Nondiscrimination Act of 2008 is an attempt to target potential discrimination before it becomes widespread. In addition to protecting the rights of individuals this Act is designed to create a friendlier environment for medical and scientific research.According to Hudson, Holohan and Collins, â€Å"Along with the benefits it provide s to individuals, the new law should have positive effects on the fields of clinical research and health care delivery† (2010). Purposes (GINA) The stated purpose of this Act is: â€Å"To prohibit discrimination on the basis of genetic information with respect to health insurance and employment† (United States Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 2008). This is similar to the purpose stated in the ADA. Because of the nature of genetic science enforcement methods differ. Discrimination in this area can have wise-ranging effects.Hudson et al. Also believe that genetic discrimination has had a chilling effect on potential research subjects. â€Å"Fear of genetic discrimination has also put a damper on patients' willingness to consider genetic tests†¦ or to have the results of such tests included in their medical records† (Hudson, Holohan and Collins, 2010). After fourteen years of Congressional debate GINA was finally passed in 2008. During the time this Ac t was under consideration, a number of states enacted their own laws on genetic testing and the transfer and usage of genetic information.As the genetic science industry grew many of those laws have been repealed however. This triggered a renewed effort by the Congress to pass a set of uniform standards. In theory, genes are neutral indicators of human beings. In practice genetic information can be used for de facto discrimination against individuals. Provisions (GINA) In section 1 of the Act, The Employee Retirement Security Act of 1974 was amended to provide additional protection against genetic-based discrimination. Insurance companies may not set group premium rates based on disease potententiality identified through genetic testing.Insurers can take into consideration diseases that have already manifested themselves in the group population. Heath plans may not require genetic testing as a policy condition. Under a narrow set of circumstances they can request genetic testing if it can assist in clarifying the health situation of a certain individual. It cannot request or mandate testing of the entire group. A genetic test is defined as: â€Å"an analysis of human DNA, RNA, chromosomes, proteins or metabolites that detects genotypes, mutations or chromosomal changes† (United States Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 2008).Fines for noncompliance begin at $100 daily for each employee. For example, if ten employees were mandated or coerced into genetic testing as a condition of maintaining insurance coverage, the federal government would levy a $1000 fine to the insurer retroactive to the time the coercion began. For violations more serious than de minims, the fines are higher. Genetic information may not be used for eligibility, maintenance of policy or as a pre-existing condition. Employers must comply with many of the same restrictions on genetic testing.Hiring, promotion and firing decisions cannot be based on genetic information. Also the em ployer may not acquire or purchase genetic information about an employee without specific written permission. Even when permission is given all other restrictions still apply. Similar requirements also apply to employment agencies and labor organizations. One notable exception exists for labor organizations. If the purpose is to monitor the effects of toxins in the workplace, the collecting of genetic information may be allowable if certain requirements are met.The employees must be notified and provided with individual results; and the actions must be compliant with OSHA, the provisions of this Act and any other federal laws. Section 206 of this Act addresses confidentiality, an issue of growing concern for many Americans. The Act strengthens confidentiality standards set forth in state and federal legislation, including the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) and the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA). Under this Act remedies and enforcem ent vary according to the type of violation and which statute the employee is covered under.Analysis and Conclusion These are two Acts of Congress which may appear different on their face. They were enacted nearly twenty years apart. One targets a legacy of past behavior while the other is preventive in nature. One is based on very human issues while the other is concerned with the cutting-edge of science. Despite their differences, the two laws boil down to one issue of concern to every American – discrimination. These acts are part of a continuum not to create equality but to ensure equal opportunity. These laws are recognition of two of the greatest strengths of America.This nation grew from humble seeds by expanding opportunity, over time, to those would not have received it before. The contributions of those citizens then fueled America's rise to power. Secondly, the Acts are indicative of a nation's willingness to right its past wrongs. This has been done many times in the history of the nation. Making these changes is not always easy, but it is necessary for the continued growth of the country. The impact of The Genetic Nondiscrimination Act of 2008 remains to be seen. It is very likely that as genetic science continues to grow the law will need to evolve.Its ability to do so will be the measure of its ultimate impact. It will be a challenge for the law to keep up. In 1995, there were about 300 genetic tests for diseases and conditions. Most of these tests were done in the context of scientific research and were not readily available to the public. Today over 1500 tests are available. They are much more widely accessible and cover a wide range of conditions from rare to commonplace. The Genetic Nondiscrimination Act puts the scientific community on notice by setting privacy and ethical standards and creating an enforcement apparatus.The safeguards in this Act may ultimately benefit science by making citizens more willing to participate in researc h. More importantly, it potentially closes doors to an entirely new and damaging form of discrimination. There are potential financial benefits as well. According to Hudson, Holohan and Collins â€Å"It will accelerate research†¦ and allow Americans to finally realize the benefits and health care savings offered by gene-based medicine† (2010). This act is an early step for preventing discrimination in a burgeoning field. It is not comprehensive though.The safety and reliably of genetic tests is one potential area for future regulation. Marketing of genetic testing services is another. When Congress considers regulatory acts of this nature there are many factors to take into consideration. It must consider effects and potential effects on a wide array of stakeholders. Preventing discrimination on one group without causing discrimination or undue hardship on another is a narrow line to walk. The ADA and GINA have made progress in preventing unjust and unnecessary discrimin ation.The ADA has brought a large population of people out of society's shadows. The Act will become all the more important as people can now live longer and be productive with disabilities. Our aging population also means that the law will impact an increasingly large group of people. The Genetic Nondiscrimination Act shares philosophical similarities with the ADA and The Civil Rights Act of 1964. Discrimination, whether based on race, disability or genetic makeup is not true to the United States' Constitution. As a result of these laws individuals and society will benefit socially and economically.America itself will benefit by having the contributions of the citizens' affected. The nation benefits when the largest possible majority of its citizens enjoy the individual right to maximize potential. In a dynamic society, Congress will need to revisit and amend these laws in perpetuity in order to fulfill their true promise. References Hudson, Kathy, M. K. Holohan and Frances Collins . (2010). â€Å"Keeping Pace with the Times: The Genetic Nondiscrimination Act of 2008†. NEJM. Retrieved May 29 from: http://content. nejm. org/cgi/content/full/358/25/2661Pickering, Francis. (2000). Americans with Disabilities: exploring implications of the law for individuals and institutions. New York: Routledge. United States Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC). (2008). â€Å"The Genetic Nondiscrimination Act of 2008†. EEOC. Retrieved May 29, 2010 from: http://www. eeoc. gov/laws/statutes/gina. cfm United States Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC). (1990). â€Å"Titles I and V of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990†. EEOC. Retrieved May 30, 2010 from: http://www. eeoc. gov/laws/statutes/ada. cfm